DalTech CPST2000
Technical Communications

Grammar Review

A. Syntax: Sentence Construction

Each sentence MUST have a subject and verb (an object is optional). When communicating complex ideas, it is easy to write incomplete sentences--i.e., to forget a subject or verb.

Error: "The difficulties arising from the interaction of complex polymers and residual organic material in the extraction phase, keeping in mind cost-effective quality control."

Correction:

Avoid overly long sentences; they are difficult for your reader to digest.

Hint: When a sentence has too many conjunctions (and, or, but), break it into smaller sentences, or restructure it to link the phrases with a semicolon.

Poor Writing:

"The Internet is a network of networks connected via dedicated lines, and these dedicated lines form its connectivity backbone, but many citizens in remote areas are still not connected."

Better:

"The Internet is a network of networks connected via dedicated lines; these lines form its connectivity backbone. However, many citizens in remote areas are still not connected."

B. Punctuation: Guidelines for Using Commas

Put a comma between the elements of a series, but not before the final AND, OR or NOR, unless it is needed to avoid confusion.

• "men, women and children"
• "apples, oranges or bananas"
• "Breakfast consisted of oatmeal, fried eggs, and bread and butter."

 Use a comma before clauses introduced by the conjunctions AND, BUT, FOR, OR, NOR or YET if the subject changes. (A clause contains a subject and a verb.)

• "We are all here, but some of us are asleep."

Note: The comma may be omitted when the clauses are short or the subject of both is the same.

• "The starter gun fired and the race was on."

 A comma is used to set off an introductory clause or long phrase that precedes a main clause. This avoids initial misreading of a sentence.

• "Underneath, the papers were scorched."
• "Underneath the papers were scorched tickets.

A comma is used after the main clause only if the clause that follows is parenthetical (not essential to the central meaning of the sentence).

• "I’m giving you a $100 because I like your face."
• "I’m giving you a $100, which is more than I gave Jane."

A comma is used to separate adjectives before a noun when the comma represents an AND.

• "A frank, open face"
• "A genial, popular man"

No comma needed:

• "A cold marble floor"
• "A an old brown winter coat"

Note: As a rule of thumb, if the order of the adjectives cannot be changed, omit the commas.

Do not put commas around a word, phrase or clause if it is ESSENTIAL to the meaning of the sentence.

• "Mr. Smith was accompanied by his son Jack."
• BUT "Mr. Smith was accompanied by his oldest son, Jack."

•  "They drove to a village where they had seen apple trees."
• BUT "They drove to a village, where they ate lunch."

Note: When the information given is not essential, the clause is known as a NON-RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE. Such a clause is set off by commas.

• "My oldest brother, who is an engineer, was hurt in an accident last week."

One way to determine if an adjective clause is non-restrictive is to read the sentence without it. If the noun that the clause describes is still identified by what is left, the clause is non-restrictive or non-essential--and must be set off by commas.

If, for example, you were to drop the adjective clause from the above example, your reader would not have to ask which brother was hurt. The brother is specified by the adjective "oldest." The clause "who is an engineer" merely gives additional information.

Restrictive adjective clauses are not set off by commas. A restrictive adjective clause identifies a noun and is ESSENTIAL to understanding the sentence.

• "My brother who graduated from college in June was hurt in an accident."

Compare:

• "People who have very slow reflexes should be denied a driver’s license."
• "People, who have very slow reflexes, should be denied a driver’s license."

Compare:

• "Those engineers work for Americans who have enough money to build mansions and for royalty."
• "Those engineers work for Americans, who have enough money to build mansions, and for royalty."

Use a comma to set off parenthetical expressions and direct addresses.

• "That’s right, isn’t it?"
• "Come into the garden, John."

Use commas to set off geographical elements.

• "The tour bus runs from Basel, Switzerland to Milan, Italy."
• "I worked in Vancouver, B.C. last summer."

C. Subject-Verb Agreement

Singular nouns and pronouns take singular verbs; plural nouns and pronouns take plural verbs.
(Note: Some nouns are both plural and singular.)

• "The fish is swimming." (i.e. my goldfish, Romeo)
• "The fish are swimming." (i.e. a school of herring)

A singular subject followed by such phrases as together with, as well as, in addition to, plus or along with still requires a singular verb.

• "The chief engineer, along with his crew, is leaving for lunch."
• "The teacher, as well as the students, loves grammar."

Note: These phrases provide additional information (in the form of a non-restrictive clause) and are not part of the subject.

The following indefinite pronouns almost always require singular verbs:

• another
• everybody
• nobody
• anybody
• everyone
• no one
• anyone
• everything
• nothing
• each
• many a
• one
• either
• much
• somebody
• every
• neither
• something

• "Each of the engineers wears a hard-hat."
• "Nobody likes waiting for buses."

Compound subjects (two or more nouns) modified by each, every or many a require a singular verb.

• "Each manager and assistant manager is responsible for their employees."
• "Many a man and woman has tried that trick."

When compound subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject CLOSER to the verb. Subjects connected by either... or, neither ... nor or not only ... but also follow the same rule.

Compare:

• "Neither the teacher nor the students prefer to finish early."
• "Neither the teachers nor the student prefers to finish early."

Compare:

• "Not only Mrs. Smith, but also her children, love snow.
• "Not only the children, but also Mrs. Smith, loves snow."

D. Numbers: Numerals vs. Words

The general rule is to spell out numbers from zero to nine, and to use numerals for numbers 10 and over.

However, in technical writing, numbers below 10 can appear as numerals. When a number is a key value, an exact measurement, or both, use a numeral, not a word. For example, "Our computer backup system uses 4 mm tape" requires a numeral. However, a word, not a numeral, is preferable in the following context: "There are four key elements that define a desktop publishing system."

Rule Summary:

• Use numerals for exact technical values, even when those values are below 10.
• Use words for non-measurable numbers less than 10, as in the sentence "There are six data types in the C programming language."
• Do not begin a sentence with a numeral--write out the number or rephrase the sentence so that it doesn't begin with a numeral.

Examples:

• Aggregates constitute about 70 percent of a concrete mix.
• There are two telephones in service today for every three peoplein the Canada.
• The typical stand-alone microcomputer system consists of seven physical components.

(Use "seven" here because, even though it seems like an exact amount, it is not a key value. It doesn't have the same significance as the "7" in "7 quarts of oil.")

E. Parallelism

Parallelism refers to using the same grammatical structure to present all items in a series. A variable structure is distracting and potentially confusing to readers.

Problem sentence:

Customers often call to inquire about pricing, what items are available, and to place orders. ("what items are available" does not match the two phrases beginning with "to.")

Revision:

Customers often call to inquire about prices, check on the availability of certain items and place orders.

Problem:

This report is intended for people with some electronics background but have little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting. (The "with" phrase is not parallel to the "have little" clause--it is not even grammatical.)

Revision:

This report is intended for people with some electronics background but with little or no knowledge of geophysical prospecting.

F. Pronoun Reference

A pronoun takes the place of a noun. A pronoun always refers, or points, to the immediately preceding noun. Problems arise when a reader can't deduce what the pronoun is pointing to (its "reference") or when the pronoun doesn't agree in number or gender with what it is pointing to.

Pronoun Reference Problem:

Lasers have been used to study the reaction of nitric oxide and ozone. It plays an important role in the chemistry of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth. ("It" points to ozone.) Revision: Lasers have been used to study the reaction of nitric oxide and ozone. This process plays an important role in the chemistry of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth.

Pronoun Agreement Problem:

Motorola has just announced their new PowerPC chip.

Revision:

Motorola has just announced its new PowerPC chip. ("Motorola" is singular, "their" is plural; they don't agree in number.)

Pronoun Agreement Problem:

NASA hoped that by using production tooling they could save time and money.

Revision:

NASA hoped that by using production tooling it could save time and money.

Pronoun Agreement Problem:

If an energy efficient system can be developed, electrical vehicles could become as popular as its conventional counterpart.

Revision:

If an energy-efficient system can be developed, electrical vehicles could become as popular as their conventional counterpart.

G. Rules for Articles (a, an, the)

1. The indefinite article (a or an) is used only with singular nouns.

• There is a book on the table.
• There are books on the table.

The definite article (the) can be used with both singular and plural nouns.

• The book that I am reading is on the table.
• The books that I am reading are on the table.

2. Nouns of indefinite quantity or quality do not take an article.

• Gold is an important metal.
• Honesty is the best policy.

Note: The two above examples refer to general concepts. When a noun indicates a particular (definite) quality or quantity, it is preceded by the.

• The gold in this ring is very old.
• The honesty of that man is above question.

3. No article is used before the names of persons, places, countries, streets, cities or towns when they are used as proper nouns.

• They live on Robie Street in Halifax.
• Ms. Jones is moving to England.

Note: When such words are used as adjectives, they are preceded by an article.

• Halifax is a large city.
• The Halifax explosion was very large.
• Louisberg is very old.
• The Louisberg cannons are very old.
• the Pacific Ocean
• the Atlas Mountains

4. No article is used when a noun is modified by someone's name.

• Nancy's book
• Prime Minister Chretien's speech

H. Recognizing and Avoiding Jargon

Jargon refers to a mode of speech familiar only to a group or profession.

It is sometimes appropriate, and in fact necessary, to use words commonly known only to fellow professionals. Keep in mind that unnecessary jargon is the enemy of good technical communication.

An Extreme Example:

"'Twas the nocturnal segment of the diurnal period preceding the annual yuletide celebration, and throughout our place of residence, kinetic activity was not in evidence among the possessors of this potential, including that species of domestic rodent known as Mus musculus. Hosiery was meticulously suspended from the forward edge of the wood-burning caloric apparatus, pursuant to our anticipatory pleasure regarding an imminent visitation from an eccentric philanthropist among whose folkloric appellation is the honorific title of St.Nicholas."

 

I. Recognizing and Avoiding Slang

Slang is simply informal language--"street talk." Slang may be acceptable for verbal discussions, BUT it is not appropriate for formal writing, i.e., technical writing.

• Use common sense; always think about your audience.
• Avoid informal phrases such as: "The last report was like humungous -- 150 pages long!"
• Avoid trendy language and overly colourful phrases. You may think they’re descriptive, but readers will likely find them trite or hackneyed.

Examples:

• "Let me tell you, Mr. Smith, it was bad news last night. The production line was slower than molasses. The engineer in charge was snoozing and the crew was goofing off to beat the band."
• "The brochure tips the scales at a mind-blowing 150 pages.’

J. Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is placed next to a word that it cannot sensibly modify. Dangling modifiers are usually found at the beginning of sentences.

Examples:

• Based on extensive research, the engineers wrote a fine report.
• Electronically animated, the baseball fans enjoyed the scoreboard’s graphics as much as they enjoyed the game.

K. Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is placed incorrectly in a sentence, thus distorting the meaning. Writers should place modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify.

Examples:

• Hamburgers were served to the guests smothered in onions
• The new laser system is being used for the treatment of snoring in physicians’ offices.
• The chef came at him with a knife wearing a expression of fury.

L. "Squinting" or Ambiguously Placed Modifiers

A squinting modifier is one placed ambiguously between two potential referents so that the reader cannot tell which one is being modified.

Unclear:

We decided immediately to purchase the new system.

Clear:

We immediately decided to purchase the new system. Clear: We decided to purchase the new system immediately. Revise the following sentences to correct dangling, ambiguous, or misplaced modifiers.

1. Earning his pilot’s wings, his boyhood dreams had finally come true.
2. The computer provides a print-out for the management team showing the most likely effects of the action.
3. The doctor delivered the baby wearing a jogging suit.
4. By following these instructions, your computer should provide good service for many years.
5. The subject of the meeting is the future of geothermal energy in the downtown Webster Hotel.
6. The men who worked on the assembly line reluctantly picked up their last pay cheques.

CPST2000